Non-Western methods in parapsychology
How might parapsychology gain from incorporating methods, techniques, and perspectives from non-Western cultural, spiritual, and mythological traditions?
The Parapsychological Association defines parapsychology as a science of “apparent anomalies of behaviour and experience that exist apart from currently known explanatory mechanisms that account for organism-environment and organism-organism information and influence flow” (1989, p.). Some of the experiences that parapsychology investigates are extra-sensory perception which involves a reported perception of objects or events directly, not limited by the constraints of time and space. This includes telepathy which is mind-to-mind communication whereby a person may be communicating with another without the involvement of the physical senses; clairvoyance, which involves being able to perceive events or objects in different places, and/or in the future (Irwin and Watt, 2007). These experiences appear to involve a paranormal process, and so they are defined in terms of their circumstances. ‘Psi’ is a general term used to describe the underlying mechanisms which underpin the apparent paranormal phenomena. Related to this is the hypothesis of the “nonsphysical or spiritual self” (Ibid., p.7) which appears to be involved in the occurrence of psi. Kelly et al. (2007) state that the evidence of psi phenomena forms some of the basis for the proof of their dualistic mind-brain theory. Similarly, the early proponents of parapsychology rejected the physicalist scientific model by making cases against it with empirical evidence in research of psi and the related areas, which sciences based on the physicalist model cannot account for. Indeed, approaches within psychology are mostly based on this model and so deem psi simply impossible as the underlying physicalist assumptions simply cannot account for these experiences, for example, the behaviourist approach (Cardena et al., 2015).
Experimental research into altered states of consciousness (henceforth ASC), has provided important, albeit limited, insight into areas of parapsychology such as mystical experiences, telepathy, and clairvoyance (Cardeña et al., 2015). ASCs are temporary states which are by definition experientially different from ordinary every-day states that are ‘normally experienced. Many of non-ordinary states can be induced intentionally including those occasioned via techniques like meditation, or the ingestion of psychoactive substances. ASCs have a long history of use in both secular and spiritual contexts in non-Western cultures and so their use is well documented (Cardeña and Winkelman, 2011). In studying non-Western traditional and spiritual methods for inducing ASCs like meditation, parapsychology can gain further understanding into mystical experiences as well as extra-sensory phenomena. Eastern traditional spiritual practices have long documented instances of psi in relation to altered states which has led to research into meditation as occasioning what Braud (1975) called a psi-conductive state. Compiled findings show a clear link between them (Honorton, 1977), however, there is a lack of research into how this works exactly. How the inaccessible part of reality is accessed in meditative and mystical experiences during which a sense of unity and dissolution of boundaries is felt is still to be researched (Marshall, 2011; Foreman, 1998).
Psi-conductive states were explored by Braud (1975) who mentions that meditation is a very well documented part of the Eastern wisdom traditions which has a connection to psi phenomena that has existed in the knowledge of those traditions for centuries. The components of a psi-conductive state are interrelated and appear to describe the individual psychophysiological effects of an ASC occasioned via meditation. In studying ASCs and their wider context it was found that certain conditions allow people to be most receptive to psi phenomena when they are in that state. The experimental setting and procedure in experiments of psi have employed these techniques. The state seems mostly to be characterised by relaxation, and reduced arousal with increased awareness, which is similar to a state of consciousness which is experienced by mediators during their practice. Meditation is found to be leading to a psi-receptive state in itself, as are other altered states of consciousness such as hypnosis (Honorton, 1977). First, early experiments on extra-sensory perception involving a free-response technique found that participants who were physically relaxed showed better psi performance (White, 1964). In the experiments, extra sensory perception was measured by statistical analysis of times when a physically relaxed participant correctly guessed a picture representation which was 'sent' to them from a different room by a person who didn't undergo relaxation. Generally, "significant evidence" (Braud, 1975, p.143) is found that participants who are physically relaxed performed better in receiving messages telepathically. Meditative states are also categorised by low arousal and "hightened psychic sensitivity" (p.144). Experiments involving the ganzfeld procedure to study psi, which involves sensory deprivation by reducing sensory distraction have proven that reducing irrelevant, outside stimuli can increase receptivity to psi (Bem and Honorton, 1994). This is because the study participants are less attentive to external stimuli and internal somatic experiences allowing them to in a way focus on extra-sensory perception due to redirected attention on internal and subliminal information, and thus be able to exhibit telepathic communication. This experimental method also involves a gradual relaxation technique and is indeed at least in part inspired by meditation being used in laboratory experiments to increase the likelihood of psi occurring (Honorton, 1977). Charlesworth (1974) had developed a method for increasing internal awareness which has some striking similarities to the traditional non-Western practice of meditation. This was based on findings which suggested that participants are more receptive to psi if they are better at turning their attention inward (Honorton, 1974). The method involved a gradual relaxation technique, breathing exercises, exercises involving imagination, and a recording of natural sounds (Charlesworth, 1974).
Another condition which allows for a better receptivity to psi is a ‘different’ perspective of the world. LeShaun (1974) quoted in Braud (1975) stated that a world view that is different than 'normal' usually accompanies good psi performance. This world view appears to resemble a similar way perceive the world found in the spiritual wisdom tradition of Hinduism. Generalising in how people perceive the world LeShaun describes an 'ordinary' world view that "most of us perceive most of the time" (Braud, 1975, p.149). This view involves conceiving (1) objects acting independently from others; (2) the perception of time flowing in an obvious single direction; (3) physicalist views about the acquisition of information exclusively by means of the known senses. In having this view, LeShaun proposes that extra-sensory perception is speculated to be hardly attainable. LeShaun (1974) proposed that the view which is taken on by people claiming to be clairvoyant is what helps them experience psi in the first place. This involves (1) seeing objects in their context and inseparable from their surroundings; (2) perceiving the 'arrow-of-time' as illusory and being subject to change, possibly due to ASCs which can alter perceptions of time, such as that occasioned by meditation (Kramer, Weger, and Sharma, 2013); (3) assumptions about information acquisition which don't involve sensory perceptions. The latter perspective appears to correspond with the ontology of the Hindu-Buddhist doctrine. The way people conceive the world thus has implications in psi research, with is evidenced by studies on the relationship between belief and psi performance (Lawrence, 1993). Psi is more likely to be experienced and performed in a controlled setting if the person believes that that is a possibility in the first place. Participants who believed that they would successfully exhibit psi were referred to as 'sheep' and those that didn't - 'goats' (Schmeidler, 1952). The sheep-goat effect examined reveals that the relationship is very significant in free-response extra-sensory perception studies (Lawrence, 1993). It has been speculated that it's possible to induce at least temporarily the worldview which allows participants to perform better at psi in a lab setting by using techniques for altered state of consciousness together with intellectual surrender to such views for them be taken on (Braud, 1975)
As outlined by Kelly, Kelly, Crabtree, Gauld, Grosso, and Greyson (2009), Hinduism, the spiritual and cultural tradition of India has mentions of phenomena such as clairvoyance and telepathy within its ancient scriptures. These are said to be attained in the form of spiritual powers during the practice of Yoga. Yoga is they practical method for attaining spiritual union with the divine, a part of which is the practice of meditation which occasions altered, higher states of consciousness that help the Yogi (person who practices Yoga) attain enlightenment (Prabhavananda and Isherwood, 2019). This is characterised with mystical experiences of pure consciousness and dissolution of boundaries which phenomenologically appears to coincide with aspects of some ASCs induced by psychedelic psychoactive substances used in other non-Western spiritual traditions (Cardeña and Winkelman, 2011). Meditation in the Hindu tradition refers to an inward process of concentration. A person undergoing the process of Samyama (integration) which involves meditation, will experience telepathic abilities and clairvoyance which are said to be mere markers of the spiritual journey of the Yogi. These, however, should not be used as they distract from the Yogis goal of spiritual union, and can be exploited dangerously, and therefore should be condemned. Clairvoyant visions are also experienced by Yogis in altered states occasioned by ingesting psychoactive brews, however, the teachings suggest that this too distracts from the spiritual path (Ibid., 2019; Kelly et al., 2009). This thus poses a difficulty in studying psi phenomena so explicitly reported by Yogis, as they would be reluctant to display these because that would compromise their spiritual journey. The psi experienced in these cultures, however, implies a relationship between meditation and occasions of psi. The recognition of this has led to research into meditation as a state which facilitates psi in both people experienced with meditation and those that are new to it, finding that people who meditate are indeed more likely to experience psi (Roney-Dougal and Solfvin, 2006; Roney-Dougal and Solfvin, 2011).
Within the Tibetan Buddhist practice of meditation, which has similarities to the Hindu practice, the belief around Siddhis differs. There is also mention of telepathy as a psychic power which is attained through the practice of Yoga, and that it is essential in the progression towards the union with the divine (Prabhavananda and Isherwood, 2019; Evans-Wentz, 1978). Similar to Hindu thought, the psychic powers are said to manifest as one progresses in their spiritual practice. In Tibetan Yoga the ‘powers’ do not manifest themselves as in the Hindu practice. They are attained as gifts which symbolise spiritual initiation and are utilised in the spiritual practice to gain teachings from the gurus. In the Tibetan tradition, these are never written down; referred to as “gift-waves” (p.171) within scriptures they are purposefully mystified if they are ever systematically gathered in text. The purpose of telepathy is thus clearly situated in this context as an exclusive part of spiritual development (Evans-Wentz, 1978).
As outlined, altered states of consciousness induced via techniques found within non-Western spiritual traditions are helpful in parapsychological research. Properties which appear to facilitate extra-sensory perception are that which are already present in those that practice these techniques, such as Hindu Yogis or Tibetan Buddhists who have many years of experience meditating. The benefit in studying these is that the metaphysical relationship between ASCs, extra-sensory phenomena, and mystical experiences can be further understood in the future. As Kelly and Tucker (2015) have stated, there is connection between mystical experiences, psi phenomena, and other extra-sensory experiences which needs to be investigated for a unifying theoretical model which would encapsulate them all. Parapsychology being a science which allies itself with a wide range of disciplines may thus gain from a further relationship with areas of interest such as theology. Directing attention to ancient wisdom and spiritual traditional teachings parapsychology can consequently gain deeper understanding into the interconnectedness of all which it studies.
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